Violence in Schools

School violence has been identified as an increasing problem facing all members of school communities. Intervention programs have been developed to combat this ever increasing problem, with varying levels of effectiveness. Following, individualised and generic intervention programs which aim to reduce the incidence of school violence will be discussed in relation to issues such as cost, cultural fit, power, training, acceptability, and involvement.

Both individualised and generic intervention programs aim to reduce the incidence of school violence and create a safe and secure learning environment. In which staff and students are protected from all forms of violence. Bullying and aggression occur more frequently in schools where there are unclear standards of behaviour, inconsistent methods of discipline, inadequate supervision and lack of awareness of children as individuals (Pearce, 1991, p76). Generic intervention programs may address issues relating to methods of discipline and supervision but less often address issues relating to the children as individuals. Individualised intervention programs address the specific learning, social and emotional needs of the student rather than the wider school community. Individualised intervention programs also address issues relating to discipline and supervision of the target student.

Generic intervention programs appear to have limited scope when addressing the effects of violent episodes on victims and witnesses. Generic programs may be less effective in addressing the specific needs of the victim as they are typically general in nature and not developed for the specific and individual needs of particular students. Individualised intervention programs address the specific needs of the victims within the specific school context. Therefore, individualised intervention programs are likely to be more effective in addressing the effects of violence for those involved, including the victims of violent episodes. Intervention programs, either individualised or generic, which require the abuser to make amends, are effective in reducing further incidents (Pearce, 1991).

Some teachers commonly use emotional maltreatment along with punitive practices to discipline and punish students for unwanted behaviour (Briggs & Hawkins, 1997, p34). Abuse perpetrated by teachers often occurs within a school climate where violence and aggression is tolerated (Saudermann, Jaffe & Schieck, 1996, p5). A generic intervention program may be effective in changing the culture of the school and impacting on expectations of acceptable professional behaviours. However, the changes required to limit the abuse by teachers may happen over time as the culture of the school improves. An individualised intervention program would also be effective in reducing incidents of abuse by teachers, although changes in abusive behaviours should occur more rapidly. Both generic and individualised intervention programs can provide abusive teachers with new strategies for managing students' behaviour thus reducing the incidence of violence and abuse.

Due to its broad focus generic intervention programs may not meet the needs of the students that it is targeting. A 'one size fits all' approach may not meet the specific needs of students, teachers, parents or community because of its generic nature. A generic intervention program strives to create a school environment that is warm and interesting and has clearly defined limits regarding behaviour. The program fosters consistent, non-violent strategies to address violations of the school rules (Olweus, 1994). Generic intervention programs mainly utilise staff already available at a school, including parents or caregivers, school administration, teachers and students (Olweus, 1994). These program and of others like it aim to reduce maladjustment and violence by providing at risk students with alternative, pro-social attention (Jackson, 2002, p115).

Individualised intervention programs are developed according to identified needs of individual students. They are very costly as they require intensive observation and investigation as to the context and the purpose of the misbehaviour. They require the ongoing support of specialists in Functional Behaviour Analysis (FBA). The FBA is the process of identifying events that predict violent episodes and maintain that behaviour (March, 2002). Specialists may be required to complete the behaviour analysis and to develop a plan of action to address the violent episodes. They may require extra staff to assist teachers in development and implementation of the program. Using an FBA to develop an individualised intervention program, whilst being effective, is costly and requires the use of non-school based specialists or highly trained specialist teachers.

Alternatively, generic intervention programs which are commercially available are less expensive for schools to purchase and implement. They may require a training component, but this is usually an isolated period of training for those involved. Research has shown (March & Homer, 2002) that these one off teacher training programs are not likely to generate skills that teachers can use and maintain in various classroom settings. Teachers require meaningful and regular training in the strategies outlined in the intervention program for it to be successful. Generally, generic intervention programs are able to be effectively implemented by classroom teachers with limited training in violence reduction strategies.

Antecedent-based interventions, a type of individualised program, are effective in reducing violent episodes at school and therefore reduce the need for punitive consequences to violence (Kern, 2002 p 113). They address the environmental issues that contribute to violence occurring within a school or classroom setting. The Antecedent-based interventions are similar to the FBA, a component of an individual intervention program, as they address the specific needs of individuals and the factors that contribute to violent episodes occurring within a particular setting. These individualised intervention programs have been identified as being effective in reducing school violence by limiting the identified environmental factors that contribute to violent epsidoes with targeted students.

Many generic intervention programs are long term and may take several years to see meaningful improvements and changes in the school culture, as well as a reduction in violent episodes. Teachers may find an increased workload due to increased expectations (Saudermann, Jaffe & Schieck, 1996, p9) and find this difficult to manage within an intense workload. During the initial stages of intervention, there may be an increase in the frequency of incidents of peer violence, as previous acts of violence may not have been dealt with. Within several months of implementation, fewer incidents of violence are likely to occur and as a result the school climate should become more positive as the environment becomes safer (Saudermann, Jaffe & Schieck, 1996, p9).

Individualised intervention programs are designed to address the specific needs of the target individuals. They are developed using specific data which informs the type of program that needs to be implemented. Individualised intervention programs access specific information through meaningful investigation of the behaviours of those students involved. A hypothesis is developed regarding the function the violence performs and the intervention is developed to specifically address this need. Generic intervention programs generally do not address why a particular student is violent and therefore run the risk of failing to meet their specific needs. They provide a bandaid solution to prevent and reduce violent incidents in general. All students exhibiting similar behaviours will receive similar intervention (March, 2002, p159), without addressing the cause of the violence and the student's specific emotional, social and academic needs.

Generic intervention programs usually involved teaching those involved skills to reduce the level of school violence. These may include conflict resolution and peer mediation for the students and new strategies to manage student's behaviour for teachers. The skills taught during the intervention are not usually transferred by students into other contexts, therefore are far less likely to reduce violence. Generic intervention programs may include a proactive prevention section which outlines procedures, lessons and supervision ideas to prevent violence actually occurring within school contexts. This may include instruction relating to the development of effective social skills. Social skills should be taught, as part of an intervention, with effective instructional techniques (Scott, Nelson & Liaupsin, 2001), to maximise the enhancement of student's pro-social behaviours. Individualised intervention programs may also include opportunities for students to develop social skills which may enhance their school experience, skills that are useful in many contexts.

Behaviour mapping programs encourage students to identify and understand their non-productive behaviours and explore more appropriate alternatives (Unruth, Anderson & Bartscher, 1997). This encourages students to become more aware of their behaviour and to make choices about how they want to behave. Behaviour Mapping is an effective generic intervention program that is tailored to the individual student's behavioural needs. It requires a skilled, knowledgeable and committed teacher to implement the program effectively.

Some generic intervention programs by nature must be general and include information that is aimed at the dominant white middle class student. These programs may therefore exclude students who don't form part of the dominant school culture. (Hyman & Snook, p134) These programs may contain a lot of assumed knowledge, behaviours and expectation which may be unfamiliar to some students. This may render the intervention program ineffective for those students. An individualised intervention program should be tailored to the specific cultural and language needs of the student. To be effective, an intervention program should be culturally inclusive and be accessible for all targeted students.

Peer violence can be related to a variety of causes, including family, individual and school factors (Saudermann, Jaffe & Schieck, 1996, p4). Intervention programs should therefore address these factors if they are to be real successful. Generic programs to reduce school violence are often limited in their scope and only address individual and school factors. Family factors which may contribute to peer violence within schools are rarely addressed in generic intervention programs. Studies indicate that aggressive behaviour is elevated in children who witness violence within the home (Jaffe, Wolfe & Wilson, 1990). Therefore, family factors must be addressed for any intervention program to be successful. Peer abuse may relate to a power imbalance between the abuser and the victim (Sudermann, Jaffe & Schieck, 1996, p2). Therefore, intervention programs should include opportunities for students to develop interpersonal skills and self esteem.

Research has identified that intervention programs that emphasise punishment, control and zero tolerance are ineffective at preventing school violence and may even contribute to antisocial behaviours occurring (Leone, et al 2000). Teachers are in a powerful position to reduce the incidence of school violence through their use of appropriate behaviour management strategies, providing adequate supervision and an engaging curriculum. They can also attain this position by establishing an environment where violence of any kind in unacceptable and students are treated respectfully. According to Scott, Nelson & Liaupsin (2001), students who are successful in school have little incentive to engage in behaviours that might typically result in their exclusion from school. Long term generic intervention programs with multiple components which include conflict resolution, values education, cultural education, positive discipline and effective communication that is aimed at teachers, staff, students, and parents are powerful in changing the school's culture (Smith, Duaric, Miller & Robinson, 2002, p574).

Effective academic instruction has also been identified as a strategy to help prevent school violence. Scott, Nelson & Liaupsin (2001) contend that by creating schools that facilitate student success, the goal of improving school safety will also be addressed. Therefore, teachers must provide an academically challenging environment in which positive interpersonal relationships are fostered.

There are many programs that can be implemented across school level or to target individuals to reduce incidents of violence at school. Certainly there are many commercially available intervention programs available for schools to choose from. It is important that programs are identified and implemented that are appropriate to the school culture, are acceptable within the wider community, involve parents. Individualised intervention programs are invaluable for creating behavioural change for students exhibiting serious aggressive behaviour. A generic intervention program may be effective in preventing and addressing violence across a whole school level by encouraging students to develop effective and pro-social interpersonal skills.

Often through early experiences with family, schools, media, peers and community children learn that violence, rather than communication or negotiation, is an appropriate way to solve interpersonal problems WHO/UNESCO, 1999, p2).

Samantha is a qualified Early Childhood teacher with 10 years experience. She is currently studying Master of education. She is the mother of 2 young boys. Although parenting is her main focus, furthering her understandings about how children learn and develop is something of great interest to her. She is interested in parenting, as a teacher, as a mother and a member of a wider community.